A Model of Image Creation and Image Transfer

Today, although still re sacrificeing a small component of the b aneleers suit promotional budget, the exposelay of reflectivity dollars for sponsorship castles Is growing rapidly (Parker, 1991 Candler and Shank, 1989 Scott and Chard, 1992). no(prenominal) wholly atomic build 18 todays sponsorships much(prenominal) sophisticated (I. E. , to a greater extent(prenominal) than apparently the donation of cash for subject crossingion but to the highest degree firms atomic subdue 18 expecting a reasonable return on their sponsorship dollar in the abidance of change magnitude sales (Octahedron and Van Kirk, 1992). mend firms enter into sponsorship arrangements with a commixture of goals, deuce of the most serious argon to change magnitude discoloration sentience and to establish, loudnessen, or change chump externalise Crowley, 1991 Marshall and Cook, 1992 Meghan, 1991 Memorable teal . , 1991). Recently, these goals defecate been theorized to be important in the learning of customer-based leaf blade equity, delimitate as the archetypical derivative coefficient erect of instigator friendship on the consumers purchase decision (Keller, 1993).In Sellers machinateulation, flaw knowledge (which drives customer-based snitch equity) Is a function of twain the consumers awareness of the betray and the Image(s) fol first-class honours headerd with that awareness. In p maneuvericular, the variability, capacity, and uniqueness of the rat sleepers play a circumstantial role in find the variedial response (Keller, 1993, p. 8). sign awareness is achieved by exposing the blot to as many in all likelihood consumers as realizable (Asker, 1 991 ).Sponsorship activities present quaternary opportunities for achieving awareness quarryives, and much of the look into to Image creation flummox one hundred forty-five transnational selling fall all all over, Volvo. 14 No. 3, 1997, up. 145-158. MAC university press, 0265-1335 Inte rnational selling surveil date in the sponsorship literature has center on awareness publications such(prenominal) as sponsor recall (e. G. McDaniel and Kinney, 1996). Regrettably, little forethought has been given(p) to caseful and brand role issues.A number of questions exist regarding the effect of sponsorship promotional activities on brand and upshot facesetters case. For case What reckons contribute to an characters public figure? Do consumers associate an instances characterization with sponsoring brands? If on that point is an doubling stand amidst solution and sponsor, is t hither(predicate)(predicate) a theoretical explanation that finish be used to understand this linkage? If there is an shape standoff amid burden and sponsor, what factors abate ( dexterityen or weaken) this kindred? How does eccentric atdecaded deviate office towards the brand? Although attempts at measuring the return on the sponsorship investment shoot been m ade (e. G. , thorough burden at decenniumdance, exit polls, sales pursuance the causa, and number of media mentions), an understanding of how sponsorship works has nonwithstanding to be highly-developed (Octahedron and Van Kirk, 1992 sawhorse et al. , 1994 Memorable teal . , 1991 Parker, 1991). The purpose of this phrase is to present a determine condoneing the mechanisms by which brand photograph whitethorn be mended through with(predicate) sponsorship activities.Specifically, mechanical drawing on the theory of marrow rareness from the reputation back up gear literature, a model is presented which fires the factors snarled in creating an issuings understand and the subsequent modifyence of that discover to the sponsoring brand. Furthermore, several(prenominal) factors are rotary that whitethorn moderate the relationship surrounded by force physique and brand physical body. While the focalisation of this article is on the conceptual development of reach graft in sponsorship, a class of look propositions are offered to guide future empirical inquiry.A exemplar for the give of sheath externalize archetype conceptualization and overview filth soma has been defined as perceptions about brand as reflected by the brand associations held in computer storage (Keller, 1993, p. 3). Keller suggests that the variability, uniqueness, and strength of the associations are decisive to a brands success. Brand associations are developed from a variety of sources including product use, educational sources (e. G. , advertizement, packaging, word-of-mouth), and association with unlike entities.The association with new(prenominal) entities source is of extra relevance to sponsorship activity. Keller has suggested that when a brand proceeds associated with an veritable(a)t, approximately of the associations link with the takings (e. . , youthful, relaxing, enjoyable, disappointing, sophisticated, elite, and so on ) may f abricate conjugate in memory with the brand. This enchant of associations is conformable with research in the repute visage act. Initial research regarding distinction warranty focused on the credibility and attractiveness of the contentedness source (I. E. Celebrity) to explain the persuasive spirit of indorsers. That is, more presumable and attractive contributors were viewed as more persuasive. However, McCracken (1989), pointing to conflict research results, suggested that endorsement impellingness is bettor explained by the importees consumers associate with the credit endorser and subsequently move out to the brand. McCracken uses the term heart and soul to describe consumers general perspicacitys of what a famous person represents based on counterb withstands sun as social class, gender, age, personality Ana Testily. In unmarried characteristics (e. . , regal, trashy, maleness, strong, caring, sexual, irreverent, wise) are integrated to define the ker nel of the glory. Meaning which has been accumulated through their roles in television, movies, military, athletics, ND another(prenominal) careers is thought to sojourn in celebrities (McCracken, 1989, p. 315). According to McCracken, the meaning attributed to celebrities moves from the celebrity endorser to the product when the two are paired in an advertisement. That is, meanings associated with the celebrity perplex associated with the product in the mentality of the consumer.To fatten out the meaning delight border, consumers acquire the meaning in the product through consumption. This process is illustrated in Figure 1. 147 Figure 1 . Meaning movement in the endorsement process McCracken (1989) meaning in celebrities is uniform to Sellers (1993) shell associations. Following the convention set forward by Keller with reference to brand run into, this article uses the term case consider to represent the cumulative interpretation of meanings or associations attributed to solvents by consumers.A comparison hind end be drawn between celebrity endorsers and facts. effective as consumers associate celebrities with certain meanings, so in like way are outlets associated with particular attributes and attitudes. It is suggested here that these associations are derived from the issuings type, fount characteristics, and several one-on-one consumer factors. This is non unlike the meaning attributed to a celebrity being create by the various roles he or she occupies.For example, resolution associations attributed to the annual Chicago Blues feast (a food and musical extravaganza drawing over 500,000 people) tycoon include tradition, festivity and civic pride. Extending this concept of meaning transfer from the celebrity endorser literature, it is suggested that facts act in a manner analogous to endorsers in the transfer of icon to sponsoring brands. The modeling presented in Figure 2 theorizes from McCracken celebrity endorsement mode l to suggest that International Marketing Review 14,3 148 Figure 2.A model of jut creation and image transfer in compositors case sponsorship answer image is formed from a number of external and informal factors. Through sponsorship, an typesetters cases image, which may be comparatively distinct for different consumer groups, may be transferred through association to the sponsoring product. As indicated in the figure, several factors may moderate the strength of this image transfer. This interchange leads to the offering of the starting time research proposition Pl Through sponsorship, an yields image leave become associated with the sponsoringDragon s Image. Determinants of item image An progenys image is represented by a particular market segments boilers suit subjective perceptions of the activity. The proposed framework suggests tierce factors that may shock ones perception of a particular event event type, event characteristics, and man-to-man factors. way ou t type . In consonance with the earlier definition, event type tooshie be categorized into at least five areas variances associate, music cerebrate, festival/ circus related, fine arts related (e. G. Ballet, art exhibit, theatre, etceteratera ), and professional meeting/ conduct show related. The type of event alludes event image in a variety of ways. First, it conjures up image associations in the mind of the consumer. That is, most item-by-items, through chivalric condescend or other forms of picture show (word-of-mouth, television, etc. ) get out develop some attitudes (I. E. , plus or negative predispositions towards an event) regarding particular events. These attitudes go away serve to frame the image of the particular event type.Note however, that ones attitude towards an event is yet one part of an events image. Ones attitude towards an event represents a summary of experiences resulting in some mineral predisposition to respond to an event in a consistently genial or unfavorable manner. Thus, event attitude is an enduring evaluation (Cohen, 1990). While an events image forgo for be strongly becharmd by ones attitude towards the event, event image allow withal be impacted by non-evaluative perceptions of an event that are formed through associations held in the consumers memory (Keller, 1993).In this sense, event image reflects the meaning of the event for an individual, and hatful be characterized using descriptive labels that represent a summation of ones perceptions. These labels, termed image associations, would include youthful, mature, carefree, adventurous, educational, social, traditional, exclusive, common, liberal, conservative, utmost class, family oriented, children oriented, cerebral, athletic, artistic, pride, political, etc. Thus, event image buttocks be thought of as a collection of image associations.In addition to prehistoric experiences and other indirect exposures, it is belike that saucy experiences all ow shape ones perception of event image. In fact, image perceptions formed from the most juvenile event experiences provide apparent be the most influential in shaping ones overall event image receptions (Baggage and Warsaw, 1990). New experiences cease be change integrity into two types the specific activities assiduous in or observed and all inter put to deaths with other event attendees/participants and event staff.It is through these two experiences that past event images may be changed or modified and new image associations can be added. The specific activities engaged in or observed may be the like for all participantsl (e. G. , attendees at a soccer match) or quite an varied (e. G. , the individual rides and attractions selected at a local festival), depending on the type of event. unheeding of the law of similarity of experiences, the essential issue is that a given consumers specific event experiences or observations get out shape their perceptions of event image. It is withal argued here that the number and type of other participants go away pitch an impact on ones evaluation of the events image. For example, the number of spectators may impact ones assessment of the success of the event. Perhaps events may be viewed as more flourishing when they draw more attendees. In Alton, ten under AT participants may electrical shock perceptions AT crowding, event availability, and wait quantifys. caseful of participant represents the demographic and cryptographic characteristics of others aid the event.The attendees at some events represent relatively homogeneous market segments in wrong of social class, family life cycle, age, gender, political affiliation, etc. For example, spectators of professional golf tournaments may be middle aged, white males, with to a high place average incomes. In other cases, events draw composite types of participants. Just as other customers can work a substantial impact on consumers perceptions of service firms, so too can other participants pay an impact on ones event experiences and bequest assessment of event image (Bitter et al. , 1994).These factors, perceptions based on past experiences, event activities, and the number and type of spectator/participant, constitute one expectation that testament serve to shape consumers overall subjective perceptions of a given event. found on the to a higher place discussion, several research propositions are suggested 149 International Marketing Review 14,3 150 App Direct experience and/or indirect information (word-of-mouth, advertising, etc. ) with an event type exit regularise event image. Pub The specific activities experienced or observed during an event go away see event image.PC The number and type of other spectators/participants allow for influence event image. instance characteristics. Within a given event type (e. G. , music concert series, dish out show, etc. ), a number of characteristics will vary from event to event . The level of the side by side(p) five event characteristics will probably influence consumers perceptions of an events overall image event size of it, professional office of participants (professional or amateur), tradition/ bill associated with the event, event locale, and promotional appearance.Event size can be considered on a number of dimensions, including Engel of event, level of media exposure (local, regional, national, international), number of performers (if applicable), and amount of sensible space occupied. The same type of event, for example electronic sedulousness trade shows, can vary on all of these dimensions, creating different images for the same event type. Likewise, other event characteristics such as the professional status of performers (professional versus amateur) or the locus in which the event is staged (e. . , temperature, convenience, physical condition, etc. ) will impact ones overall assessment of the events image. One could theorize that, i n most cases, perceptions of quality, legitimacy, and attendance desirability will be higher with long stockpilening, boastfully, in an elaborate way staged events, featuring professionals in attractive and at rest venues. The comprehend promotional appearance of a brands sponsorship activities may appear anywhere on a spectrum from advertiser to helper.A perception towards the benefactor end of the spectrum may lead to change magnitude feelings of goodwill towards the brand be vitrine it is descryd as donating funds to make the event come-at-able (McDonald, 1 ) conversely, tanner may De a negative reaction to ten Americanization of events that sacrifice not been sponsored in the past. These events may be perceived as selling out to the corporate world. This has become particularly adjust in the Arts, where some individuals feel that sponsorship (corporate or governmental) of the Arts leads to censorship Jacobson, 1993 Wood, 1996) .However, due to increase costs, it ha s become even more critical for events to obtain outside sponsors in install to continue to exist. To take full usefulness of the goodwill aspects, the sponsoring brand may invite to educate attendees regarding the beneficial role sponsorship plays in event production. Due to its association with the event, a sponsoring brands promotional claims can be legitimated, which serves to increase the believability of the promotional message (McDonald, 1991). Additionally, a sponsoring firm may be perceived as making an event possible for the consumer (Chew, 1992 McDonald, 1991).The perception may be especially strong for small events which often obligate arduousy securing financial support. In this sense, the consumer does not view the sponsorship as a form of promotion, but rather the sponsoring brand is seen as providing a service to the attendee and a level of dowdily is generated by the firm. Again, the disbelief that can be associated with traditional advertising may be circumve nted. Brands that are viewed as benefactors will be seen in a more favorable light. The consumer may even feel the need or entrust to reciprocate by purchasing the brand.Following from the above discussion, the pursual research propositions are suggested App Event size will influence event image. Pub Professional status of participants will influence event image. PC tradition/ bill associated with the event will influence event image. Pad Event venue will influence event image. form Promotional appearance will influence event image. Individual factors. Because of the large number of factors influencing event image and the unique manner in which participants may interpret those factors, an event may have different images for different individuals. Qualitative research has revealed each sport to have its own individual image, and sponsors will tend to benefit from image transfer accordingly (Parker, 1991, p. 26). Three individual factors are suggested here that may impact event im age the number of images an individual associates with an vent the strength of the particular image and the past history one has with a specific event. This last factor differs from the past experience factor discussed under event type. Past history refers to the unique experiences associated with a specific event, whereas past experiences refers to encounters with a general event type.Events that consumers perceive as having ninefold images will be more difficult to associate with a sensation identity. This will be compound when the meanings are of a conflicting nature. Thus, an individual with many event associations may have a hafting image of the event, depending on which association is currently most salient. Related to this is that images can be very strong or relatively weak. It is liable(predicate) that a single strong image will surmount over several weaker ones. This will cause an event Image to De consistent over time, out Limits ten realness Tanat multiple Image ass ociations would confer.Finally, an individuals personal history with a particular event may have an impact on ones perception of an events image. A long history will typically lead to a more penetrate and consistent image. An individual that has attended or has been associated with an event for a substantial time period may in addition have nostalgic feelings that become associated with the events image. Events that have multiple or vague images pose problems for a firms sponsorship selection decision because it becomes more difficult to predict the image that may become associated with the event, and ultimately transferred to the product.The above discussion leads to the following research propositions App Individuals associating an event with a large number of images will have trouble identifying a consistent event image. 151 International Marketing Review 14,3 152 Pub Individuals with a single, strong image association will have consistent event images over time. PC Individual s with a single, strong image association will have less rich event images. Pad Individuals with semipermanent participation in an event will hold a consistent event image for that event.This constituent has identified three broad areas (event type, event characteristics, and individual factors) that influence the creation of an events image, although there may be some event image determinants not explicitly discussed in the previous share. It is likely that any unrepresented actors could be accommodated within the proposed areas. The neighboring section discusses constructs that may moderate the relationship between event image and brand image. Moderating variables in the model latent hash out variables presented in the model are discussed in two sections.In the first section variables loadedially impacting the strength of the image transfer from event to brand are discussed. As such, variables pertaining to the formation of strong memory associations ( compass point of simil arity) and exposure to the sponsors message (level of sponsorship and event frequency) are discussed. The second section on moderating rabbles examines how ones intimacy with a product may moderate the impact of the events image on brand attitude. Attitude towards the event and attitude towards the brand are conceptualized and discussed as being components of event image and brand image, respective(prenominal)ly.Although not illustrated in Figure 2, these attitude components should be considered as a part of each of the respective image boxes in the figure. Moderators between event image and brand image This section will discuss three moderating variables impacting the strength of the transfer between an events image and the image of a sponsoring brand. As indicated above, the foothold of the relationship is the meaning transfer between these constructs and it is this process that the moderating variables are proposed to influence.The first moderating factor to be discussed in the image transfer process is the degree of similarity between the event Ana ten sponsor. A product can nave letter Atonally or Image related similarity with an event. Functional similarity occurs when a sponsoring product is developedly used by participants during the event. An example of this type of similarity is Valentines sponsorship of motorcar racing. The link is established because, apart get on being a sponsor, Valentines motor oil products are actually used by many of the participants during the event.The second type of similarity is termed image related, and occurs when the image of the event is related to the image of the brand. An example of this type of linkage is Pepsins sponsorship of the 1993 Michael Jackson World Concert Tour. present the similarity comes from the youth and excitement taste of both the music and the product. Interestingly, some sponsors do not appear to be linked to the events they sponsor. For example, the USAF&038G Sugar domain combined a larg e policy firm with a collegiate football game game.It is suggested here that any in operation(p) or image based similarities forge stronger ties and help the consumer to link the event image with the brand. Thus, sponsor- event similarity (functional or image based) will enhance image transfer by more heavily anchoring the relationship in the consumers mind. This assertion is consistent with some celebrity endorsement literature which suggests that MIS-matches between endorser and brand decrease the effectiveness of the endorsement (Katie, 1987). A second factor that may moderate the image transfer from event to sponsoring brand is the level of sponsorship.Sponsorship arrangements can run the gamut from a single sponsor to hundreds of sponsors at many different levels. Multiple sponsors for a given event lessens the probability that a particular brand will be associated with the event, due to the additional stimuli each consumer mustiness attend to and recall (Hutchinson and Al ba, 1991). Often, events allowing multiple sponsors will offer different levels of sponsorship. By bestow different dollar amounts to the event, the sponsor can buy enhanced packages. These enhancements include correct sign/banner location, more snitch media mentions, and premium kicked and hospitality packages.Exclusive sponsorship, or at least a dominant position, will increase the likelihood of meaning transfer from the event to the sponsoring brand by more firmly establishing the link between event and brand. The frequency of the event will alike have an impact on the image transfer process. Events may be on either a one-time or recurring dry land. Although a onetime event does not allow recurring event-sponsor associations to be developed over time, some events may be of such a unique nature that they attract a great chain reactor of media attention (e. G. , Hands-Across-America). However, an ongoing event (annual, semi-annual, monthly, etc. Should have the benefit of mor e firmly establishing a link between the event and the brand due to repeated exposures (Manacling et al. , 1991). The above discussion leads to the following research propositions App The higher the degree of similarity (image or functional based) between event and sponsoring brand, the more effective the image transfer between event and brand. Pub The more exclusive the level of sponsorship, the more effective the image transfer between event and brand. PC The more frequent the event, the more effective the image transfer between event ND brand.Image creation m Ode I 153 Moderators between event image and attitude towards the brand As discussed previously, ones attitude towards the event will help to shape ones image of the event. Thus, event attitude is a component of event image. Likewise, attitude towards the brand is considered under this framework as a International Marketing Review 14,3 154 component of brand image. Indeed, recent conceptualizations of brand image include an attitude component (Keller, 1993). As such, the model presented in Figure 2 suggests that event image will have an impact on attitude towards the brand.However, might there be situations in which this relationship is moderated by another(prenominal) factor? Advertising research with endorsers has exhibit that product booking level (defined as the level of personal relevance a product has to a consumer, resulting from the perceived level of risk associated with the products consumption or non-consumption) can impact the attitude formation process ( junior et al. , 1983). Specifically, we have shown that when an advertisement refer a product of low matter, the celebrity status of the product endorsers was a very potent determinant of attitudes about the product.When the advertisement concerned a product of high battle, however, the celebrity status of the product endorsers had no effect on attitudes, but the cogency of the information about the product contained in the ad was a p owerful determinant of product evaluations ( lowly et al. , 1983, p. 143). Following from this research, level of product affaire should moderate the relationship between event image and attitude towards the brand, such that event image will have a larger impact on brand attitude for a low fight product.The influence of event image on brand attitude can be understood further by considering the type of judgement process likely to occur. Petty and Capacious (1986) elaboration likelihood model (ELM) suggests that panorama can occur along two channels. The central course to persuasion occurs when an individual bases product evaluation on diligent consideration of information that a person feels is central to the true merits of an issue or product (Petty et al. , 1983, p. 144).The second route to attitude change, skirting(prenominal), suggests that change may in addition occur through the association of the object with positive or negative cues (e. G. , in effect(p) source, plea sant surroundings, forceful presentation, etc. ). This conceptualization of the peripheral persuasion route is consistent with Sellers (1993) position of links in memory being established between an event and the sponsor. One characteristic of sponsorship that distinguishes it from some other promotional methods is its indirect nature (McDonald, 1991).That is, the sponsorship is, at best, a secondary concern (behind the actual event) for the participant. Furthermore, other than the brands name and/or logo, rarely is any type of commercial message associated with the firms products. Thus, sponsorship would appear to operate along Petty and Capacious peripheral persuasion route due to this indirect nature, and lack AT available cognizant International. Emplace tests AT ten ELM model suggest Tanat ten central route to persuasion is more effective for high involvement goods, while the peripheral route has a higher impact on low involvement goods (Petty et al. , 1983).Theorizing from th e ELM, one could conclude that when the sponsoring brand is a low involvement product, event image will be a potent force in determining brand attitude. Conversely, the promotional benefit, in foothold of attitude change, for high involvement products appears to be small. Product involvement is only likely to be applicable when the sponsorship is focused at the brand level, as opposed to the sponsorship focus being at the firm level. The discussion in this section gives rise to the following research propositions App Brand attitudes of low involvement goods will be strongly influenced by event image.Pub Brand attitudes of high involvement goods will be weakly influenced by event image. PC Persuasion processes from event sponsorship take place on the peripheral route. Implications for practice and research Implications for practice some(prenominal) implications for marketing practice can be drawn from the proposed model. First, firms should consider more than simply the number of say-so customers their sponsorship signage and other identifiers will reach. It is important to consider the image of the event, as this image may become associated with the brand.An events image can be assessed through a variety of methods. However, given its potentially indeterminate and transitory nature, qualitative methods in the form of depth interviews, focus groups, and projective techniques, are likely to provide the best view of how consumers perceive a given event. Event organizers might take it on themselves to conduct such studies and use the results to recruit potential sponsors. In the course of such research, event organizers may find that the image of their event is not what they thought.Furthermore, it would be wise for event image studies to take place on a regular basis to assess changes in event image over time. This would allow event organizers to take corrective action in a timely manner. The proposed model suggests a variety of event image determinants that could be manipulated to position a given event in a different light. In terms of the sponsoring rand, the model suggests several aspects of sponsorship that should be considered when deciding on potential event affiliations.One aspect that should be considered, in light of image transfer benefits, is the degree of similarity between the event and the brand. Brand awareness benefits are likely to increase regardless of similarity levels, but it has been argued here that image associations will be more likely when some link exists, either image or functional, in the consumers mind. Firms looking for to add sponsorship activities to their promotional mix should also consider the level of pensioners and frequency of the event.Although most firms will look at these aspects with an warmheartedness towards the total dollar commitment, it may also be wise to consider the meaning transfer implications. As discussed previously, exclusive sponsorships in events occurring on a frequent basis will likely maximize the image transfer potential of the sponsorship purchase. Finally, firms should consider whether image transfer benefits will actually have any influence on consumers attitudes towards their brand and ultimately their purchase intention. The model suggests that, in terms of impacting a